Existentialism is a philosophical movement that explores human freedom, choice, and meaning. It emerged in response to traditional views on existence and human nature. Thinkers like Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Martin Heidegger shaped its development.
Existentialism is not a single doctrine but a broad category with different perspectives. Some emphasize faith, while others reject religion entirely. Some focus on individual responsibility, while others examine social influence. Understanding the different types of existentialism helps clarify its impact on philosophy, literature, and ethics. This article explores key branches of existentialist thought and how they compare.
- Read more about Friedrich Nietzsche
- Read more about Jean Paul Sartre
- Read more about Martin Heidegger
What Is Existentialism?
Existentialism is a philosophical movement that focuses on individual existence, freedom, and choice. It challenges traditional ideas about human nature and argues that people define their own purpose through actions and decisions. Unlike rationalist or religious worldviews that see meaning as given, existentialism insists that meaning is self-created. This philosophy gained traction in the 19th and 20th centuries, with thinkers like Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Martin Heidegger shaping its core ideas. Kierkegaard emphasized faith and subjective experience, while Nietzsche rejected traditional morality, arguing that individuals must create their own values.
Existentialism is not a single unified doctrine but a broad category with different interpretations. Some versions emphasize faith and the search for God, while others stress atheism and personal responsibility. Jean-Paul Sartre, for instance, argued that humans are condemned to be free, meaning there is no predetermined purpose, and individuals must take full responsibility for their actions. Martin Heidegger introduced the concept of “Being-toward-death,” which highlights how awareness of mortality shapes human existence. These diverse perspectives form the foundation of existentialist thought, influencing literature, psychology, and modern philosophy.
The Key Types of Existentialism
Existentialism is divided into different branches based on how thinkers interpret freedom, meaning, and human responsibility. While all forms of existentialism emphasize individual choice, they differ in their views on God, society, and human nature. Some philosophers focus on personal responsibility without external meaning, while others explore faith and religious purpose. Understanding these divisions helps clarify existentialism’s impact on modern thought.
Classical Existentialism
Classical existentialism emerged in the 19th century, primarily through the works of Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche. These thinkers rejected rigid philosophical systems and argued that humans must confront life’s uncertainties directly. Kierkegaard, often called the “father of existentialism,” emphasized subjective experience and faith. He believed that true understanding comes from a personal relationship with God, rather than objective reasoning. Nietzsche, on the other hand, dismissed religion and introduced the idea of the Übermensch, an individual who transcends societal norms to create their own values.
This early form of existentialism laid the foundation for later thinkers by stressing individual struggle and self-definition. Unlike later existentialists, classical thinkers did not develop a structured existentialist philosophy but instead focused on personal transformation and radical self-awareness. Kierkegaard saw faith as the highest form of human existence, while Nietzsche viewed self-overcoming as the key to greatness. Their ideas challenged traditional moral and religious beliefs, influencing philosophy, literature, and psychology.
20th Century Existentialism
In the 20th century, existentialism became a dominant intellectual movement, largely due to Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, and Martin Heidegger. These thinkers expanded existentialist ideas beyond individual struggles, applying them to politics, ethics, and psychology. Sartre, in particular, developed the concept of radical freedom, arguing that humans have no predetermined essence and must create meaning through choices. His famous phrase, “existence precedes essence,” rejects the idea that people are born with a fixed nature.
Simone de Beauvoir extended existentialist ideas into feminism, exploring how social structures shape personal identity. Martin Heidegger introduced the idea of authenticity, emphasizing the importance of facing death and personal responsibility. Unlike classical existentialists, these thinkers addressed social and political structures, questioning how freedom operates in a world shaped by oppression and historical forces. This period marked existentialism’s peak influence, shaping literature, psychology, and existentialist ethics.
Religious Existentialism
Religious existentialism argues that faith is central to human existence. Thinkers like Søren Kierkegaard, Gabriel Marcel, and Paul Tillich believed that existential struggles should lead individuals toward God. Unlike secular existentialists, they maintained that meaning is found through a relationship with the divine. Kierkegaard famously described faith as a “leap into the absurd,” acknowledging that belief in God requires a personal and irrational commitment. Gabriel Marcel introduced the idea of mystery and transcendence, emphasizing how human beings long for a deeper connection beyond the material world.
This form of existentialism differs from atheistic existentialism in that it rejects nihilism and insists that purpose comes from outside the self. Rather than seeing freedom as a burden, religious existentialists view it as an opportunity to embrace faith and divine guidance. While they acknowledge alienation and despair, they argue that these feelings should push individuals toward spiritual fulfillment. Their ideas have significantly influenced theology, philosophy, and existentialist interpretations of Christianity.
Atheistic Existentialism
Atheistic existentialism, championed by Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, argues that there is no God, and humans must create their own meaning. Sartre rejected the idea of an external purpose, claiming that human existence is defined by choice and responsibility. Camus took a slightly different approach, introducing the idea of the absurd—the conflict between humans’ search for meaning and the universe’s indifference. Unlike religious existentialists, they saw no higher power to provide guidance, leaving individuals to shape their own destinies.
This form of existentialism often confronts nihilism, but rather than falling into despair, atheistic existentialists argue for personal responsibility and engagement with life. Camus, for example, proposed “revolt” as the appropriate response to absurdity—acknowledging meaninglessness but continuing to live fully. Sartre, in works like Being and Nothingness, stressed that freedom is inescapable and that people must take responsibility for their choices. These ideas remain central to existentialist literature and ethics, influencing discussions on human rights, morality, and personal authenticity.
How the Types of Existentialism Differ
While all forms of existentialism emphasize individual choice and responsibility, they differ in their views on God, freedom, society, meaning, alienation, and authenticity. Below is a comparison of the key types of existentialism across major philosophical aspects.
#1. View on God and Religion
- Classical Existentialism: Divided on the issue. Kierkegaard argued that faith in God is essential, while Nietzsche rejected religious belief entirely.
- 20th Century Existentialism: Primarily atheistic, but some thinkers, like Karl Jaspers, explored existential spirituality. Sartre and Camus rejected God and focused on individual responsibility.
- Religious Existentialism: Affirms the necessity of faith. Kierkegaard promoted the “leap of faith,” while Gabriel Marcel emphasized spiritual fulfillment.
- Atheistic Existentialism: Denies the existence of God. Sartre argued that without a divine plan, humans must create their own values. Camus viewed the absence of meaning as “the absurd.”
#2. Focus on Freedom and Responsibility
- Classical Existentialism: Freedom is a burden. Nietzsche’s “will to power” suggests individuals must overcome limitations and create their own values.
- 20th Century Existentialism: Strong emphasis on radical freedom. Sartre’s “condemned to be free” means humans bear full responsibility for their choices. De Beauvoir applied this to gender roles.
- Religious Existentialism: Freedom exists but is guided by faith. Kierkegaard believed freedom is meaningful only when directed toward God.
- Atheistic Existentialism: Freedom is absolute but comes with existential anxiety. Camus argued that individuals must embrace freedom despite life’s absurdity.
#3. The Role of Society
- Classical Existentialism: Focused on the individual over society. Nietzsche criticized herd mentality and encouraged self-overcoming.
- 20th Century Existentialism: Explored how society pressures individuals into conformity. Sartre’s “bad faith” describes self-deception to fit societal expectations.
- Religious Existentialism: Society is secondary to faith. Kierkegaard believed that true faith is personal and often conflicts with social norms.
- Atheistic Existentialism: Society is often an obstacle to authenticity. Camus’ “The Stranger” illustrates the isolation of those who reject social conventions.
#4. Concept of Meaning
- Classical Existentialism: Meaning is either found in faith (Kierkegaard) or self-created (Nietzsche).
- 20th Century Existentialism: Meaning is not given but must be constructed through actions. Sartre’s “existence precedes essence” emphasizes this.
- Religious Existentialism: God is the source of meaning. Kierkegaard’s faith-based existentialism suggests that surrendering to God gives life purpose.
- Atheistic Existentialism: Life is absurd but must still be lived fully. Camus’ “Myth of Sisyphus” argues that embracing the absurd allows for freedom and joy.
#5. Emphasis on Alienation and Isolation
- Classical Existentialism: Isolation comes from rejecting societal norms. Nietzsche’s “Übermensch” is an individual who rises above conformity.
- 20th Century Existentialism: Alienation is a core theme. Sartre’s “Nausea” and Kafka’s works depict the loneliness of self-awareness.
- Religious Existentialism: Faith can deepen isolation. Kierkegaard believed true believers stand alone before God.
- Atheistic Existentialism: Alienation is inevitable but should be embraced. Camus’ absurd hero recognizes his isolation but chooses to live fully anyway.
#6. Approach to Authenticity
- Classical Existentialism: Authenticity is achieved by rejecting societal lies and embracing personal struggle. Nietzsche’s “becoming who you are” reflects this idea.
- 20th Century Existentialism: Authenticity means living without self-deception. Sartre’s “bad faith” warns against surrendering freedom to external expectations.
- Religious Existentialism: True authenticity comes through a genuine relationship with God. Kierkegaard argued that faith requires full commitment.
- Atheistic Existentialism: Authenticity means facing the absurd without illusion. Camus’ “revolt” means embracing life despite its meaninglessness.
Closing Thoughts
Existentialism is a diverse philosophy that explores freedom, meaning, and human responsibility. While all its branches focus on individual choice, they differ in their stance on God, society, and authenticity.
Classical existentialism laid the foundation, with Kierkegaard advocating faith and Nietzsche championing self-overcoming. In the 20th century, Sartre and Camus rejected God and argued for radical freedom. Religious existentialism holds that faith gives life meaning, while atheistic existentialism embraces the absurd and self-created purpose.