Existentialism is a philosophy that grapples with the fundamental questions of existence, freedom, and the search for meaning in an often indifferent universe. Though it became widely recognized in the 20th century, the origin of existentialism stretches back through centuries of philosophical thought. Its roots can be traced to early thinkers who questioned the nature of existence, individual responsibility, and human freedom. From ancient Greece to the rise of modern philosophy, existential themes have been explored in various forms, shaping the trajectory of this powerful movement.
This article will explore the origin of existentialism, tracing its development from early proto-existentialist thought all the way to its formal emergence in the 19th and 20th centuries. By understanding the foundations of existentialism, we gain insight into the core ideas that continue to influence contemporary philosophy, literature, and psychology.
Early Foundations: Proto-Existentialist Thought (4th Century BCE – 16th Century CE)
Existentialism, as a defined movement, didn’t emerge overnight. It was shaped over centuries by various thinkers who, in different ways, explored themes that would later become central to existentialist philosophy. These early foundations span from ancient Greece to the Renaissance, with each era contributing to the origin of existentialism in its own unique way.
4th Century BCE – Socrates & Plato: Questioning existence, self-awareness, and personal responsibility
Socrates is often seen as the first to truly question the nature of existence and the self. His emphasis on introspection, personal responsibility, and the pursuit of knowledge laid the groundwork for many existentialist themes. Socrates famously proclaimed, “The unexamined life is not worth living,” urging individuals to explore their own consciousness and moral decisions. Plato, his student, expanded on these ideas, especially with his theory of forms, which suggested that the material world is merely a reflection of deeper, non-material truths. While Plato’s idealism differed from later existentialism, his focus on self-awareness and moral responsibility resonated with the movement’s core ideas.
1st Century CE – Stoicism (Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius): Emphasis on individual will, fate, and inner freedom
The Stoics, particularly Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius, offered a philosophy that highlighted personal freedom within the constraints of fate. They argued that while we cannot control external events, we can control our responses and attitudes toward them. This focus on inner freedom and individual will aligns with existentialist themes of personal responsibility and self-determination. Stoicism’s emphasis on accepting the inevitability of suffering and choosing one’s attitude toward it echoes the later existentialist exploration of human anguish and the need for authentic engagement with one’s existence.
16th Century – Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592): Essays on personal experience and skepticism
Michel de Montaigne’s work, particularly his Essays, marked a pivotal point in the development of existentialist thought. Montaigne explored the complexities of the self, introspection, and the inherent uncertainty of human existence. His skepticism about absolute knowledge and emphasis on individual experience laid the groundwork for existentialism’s emphasis on subjective experience and the search for personal meaning. Montaigne’s reflections on the fleeting nature of life and the struggle for self-understanding foreshadow the existentialist concern with the absurdity and uncertainty of human existence.
The Seeds of Existentialism in Modern Philosophy (17th – 18th Century)
In the 17th and 18th centuries, philosophical thought began to shift more directly toward questions of individual experience, freedom, and existence—key elements that would shape the origin of existentialism. Thinkers during this period confronted the complexities of human existence, often focusing on the tension between reason, emotion, and the meaning of life. This era provided the fertile ground from which existentialism would later grow.
17th Century – Blaise Pascal (1623-1662): The anxiety of human existence and the search for meaning
Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician and philosopher, is often seen as one of the first modern thinkers to lay the groundwork for existentialism. In his Pensées, Pascal discussed the fundamental anxiety and despair that comes with human existence. He famously stated that humans are “infinitely small” in comparison to the vast universe, yet possess a sense of grandeur and consciousness. This paradox—the tension between human greatness and the overwhelming insignificance of existence—would become a recurring theme in existentialist thought. Pascal’s exploration of the human condition, with its uncertainties and limitations, planted seeds for the later development of existentialism’s focus on human suffering, the search for meaning, and the importance of individual belief.
18th Century – Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): Individual freedom, authenticity, and the “noble savage”
Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s work also contributed significantly to the origin of existentialism. Rousseau’s ideas about the natural state of humanity, particularly his concept of the “noble savage,” challenged the prevailing social norms of his time. He argued that society corrupts the individual and that true freedom and authenticity could only be found by returning to a more natural state. This emphasis on personal freedom, individual authenticity, and the corrupting influence of society would later be central to existentialism. Rousseau’s exploration of human nature, individualism, and the struggle for authenticity became a touchstone for later existential thinkers who sought to understand the complexities of human existence in a modern world.
The Birth of Existentialist Thought (19th Century)
The 19th century was a pivotal period in the origin of existentialism, as philosophical ideas began to crystallize into the distinct existentialist movement. This era saw the rise of thinkers who not only questioned existence but also sought to understand how individuals could navigate the meaninglessness, despair, and freedom inherent in life. The existentialist concerns of choice, anxiety, faith, and the search for meaning would dominate philosophical discourse in the years to come.
Early 19th Century – Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831): The dialectic of self and consciousness
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel’s dialectical method, which posited that self-consciousness develops through a process of conflict and resolution, was highly influential on the development of existentialism. Hegel’s emphasis on the unfolding of self-consciousness through history and the importance of human freedom shaped existential ideas on individual development and the nature of self-awareness. However, while Hegel focused on the progression of consciousness through social and historical forces, existentialists would later focus more intensely on the individual’s struggle with existence, freedom, and responsibility.
Mid-19th Century – Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855): The first true existentialist, faith, despair, and the “leap of faith”
Søren Kierkegaard, often regarded as the first true existentialist philosopher, introduced the central themes of existentialism, including the concepts of despair, anxiety, and the “leap of faith.” Kierkegaard’s works, especially Fear and Trembling and Either/Or, explored the tension between reason and faith, and the individual’s need to make authentic choices despite the inherent absurdity of existence. His idea of the “leap of faith” suggests that belief in God requires a personal, irrational commitment, transcending logical reason. Kierkegaard’s focus on individual subjectivity, personal responsibility, and the struggle for meaning amidst despair was foundational for existentialist thinkers who followed.
Late 19th Century – Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900): “God is dead,” radical freedom, and the will to power
Friedrich Nietzsche’s philosophy was a radical departure from traditional metaphysical and religious systems, making him a major figure in the origin of existentialism. Nietzsche famously declared that “God is dead,” symbolizing the collapse of traditional religious and moral structures in the modern world. This declaration opened the door for a new existential crisis: without divine or moral guidance, how should individuals find meaning in life? Nietzsche’s ideas of radical freedom, the will to power, and the creation of personal values in the face of meaninglessness directly influenced existentialist thought. His concept of the Übermensch (the “Overman” or “Superman”) encouraged individuals to transcend societal norms and create their own purpose and meaning, reinforcing the existentialist focus on self-creation and responsibility.
Existentialism as a Defined Movement (20th Century)
The 20th century saw existentialism emerge as a defined and influential philosophical movement. It was no longer just a collection of ideas but a response to the growing uncertainties of modern life. With the horrors of two world wars, the rise of totalitarianism, and the rapid development of technology, existentialist thinkers began to grapple with the implications of living in an increasingly alienating world. The origin of existentialism reached its peak in this era, as philosophers addressed the human condition with an urgency that resonated across disciplines.
Early 20th Century – Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) & Phenomenology: Influence on existentialist thought
Edmund Husserl’s development of phenomenology in the early 20th century provided a crucial foundation for existentialism. Phenomenology focused on the direct study of experience, emphasizing the subjective nature of reality and the importance of individual perception. This perspective deeply influenced existential thinkers like Martin Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre, who saw the human experience as central to understanding existence. Husserl’s emphasis on lived experience and consciousness became a key framework for existentialist exploration, particularly in their quest to understand human freedom, perception, and the search for meaning in an indifferent universe.
1920s-30s – Martin Heidegger (1889-1976): “Being and Time” and the concept of “Being-toward-death”
Martin Heidegger’s work Being and Time (1927) introduced a profound shift in existentialist thought, focusing on the concept of Being and its relationship to human existence. Heidegger argued that individuals are defined by their awareness of their own mortality, which he termed “Being-toward-death.” This existential awareness of the inevitable end forces humans to confront the meaning (or lack thereof) of their lives. Heidegger’s existential analysis of being, time, and death deeply influenced existentialists like Sartre and Camus, as it reinforced the idea that meaning must be created through one’s own choices and actions in the face of an indifferent universe.
1940s-50s – Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) & Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986): Popularization of existentialism, “existence precedes essence”
Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir were instrumental in popularizing existentialism in the mid-20th century. Sartre’s famous maxim, “existence precedes essence,” encapsulated the existentialist belief that individuals are not born with inherent meaning or purpose. Instead, they must create meaning through their actions and choices. Sartre’s philosophy of radical freedom and responsibility, detailed in works like Being and Nothingness, argued that humans are condemned to freedom, forced to make choices without any predetermined essence or moral framework. Simone de Beauvoir, a key figure in existentialist thought, extended these ideas to questions of gender and oppression in her landmark work The Second Sex, challenging societal norms and advocating for the freedom of women to define their own existence.
1940s-60s – Albert Camus (1913-1960): Absurdism and the rejection of traditional meaning
Albert Camus, while not strictly an existentialist, is closely associated with the movement through his exploration of the absurd. In works like The Stranger and The Myth of Sisyphus, Camus examined the tension between the human desire for meaning and the universe’s inherent meaninglessness. He argued that life’s absurdity is something we must face without resorting to false hope or traditional religious answers. Instead, Camus advocated for a response rooted in defiance and the creation of one’s own values, despite the absurdity of existence. His ideas would continue to resonate within existentialism, especially in the movement’s rejection of external sources of meaning and its emphasis on individual responsibility in a chaotic world.
Existentialism’s Influence and Legacy (Late 20th – 21st Century)
By the late 20th century and into the 21st century, existentialism’s impact was far-reaching. It influenced not just philosophy but also literature, psychology, and even popular culture. The origin of existentialism evolved as it intermingled with other philosophical movements, such as postmodernism, while continuing to address perennial concerns about human existence, freedom, and meaning in an increasingly complex world.
Late 20th Century – Influence on literature, theater, and psychology (e.g., existential therapy)
Existentialism left a lasting imprint on various fields beyond philosophy. In literature, authors like Samuel Beckett, Franz Kafka, and Jean-Paul Sartre infused their works with existential themes, exploring the absurdity of life, the search for meaning, and the isolation of the individual. The theater, too, saw existentialist themes manifest in the works of playwrights like Beckett (Waiting for Godot) and Harold Pinter, whose plays often focused on the ambiguity and existential tension of human interaction.
In psychology, existentialism gave rise to existential therapy, a form of psychotherapy that focuses on helping individuals confront the fundamental questions of existence, such as freedom, death, isolation, and meaning. Existential therapists like Viktor Frankl, who developed logotherapy, argued that finding meaning in life, even amidst suffering, is central to psychological well-being. This therapeutic approach emphasized personal responsibility, the creation of meaning, and the acceptance of the inherent uncertainties of life.
21st Century – Continued relevance in postmodernism, self-identity, and discussions on technology and freedom
In the 21st century, existentialist themes continue to resonate in philosophical discourse and beyond. Postmodern thinkers, grappling with questions of self-identity, subjective truth, and the impact of technology on human life, have revived existential concerns. With the rise of social media, artificial intelligence, and increasing technological advancements, questions about personal freedom, identity, and the nature of reality have become even more urgent. Existentialism’s emphasis on the individual’s responsibility in creating meaning has influenced contemporary debates about the role of technology in shaping human existence, as well as the ethical implications of new technologies.
Moreover, existentialist themes have remained central in discussions surrounding the modern self and its search for authenticity in a world that often feels disconnected and impersonal. The existential struggle for self-definition in the face of societal pressures continues to be a prominent issue in contemporary philosophy, literature, and social thought.
Closing Thoughts
The origin of existentialism is not confined to a single time or place; it is a philosophical evolution that has spanned centuries. From the early musings of Socrates to the radical declarations of Nietzsche, and finally to the full-fledged existentialist movement in the 20th century, existentialism has continually grappled with questions of existence, freedom, and meaning.
This philosophy is more than an academic concept; it is a lens through which we can view the complexities of modern life. Existentialism urges us to confront the absurdity of existence, to accept our freedom and responsibility, and to create meaning in a world that offers none. Its legacy is not just in philosophy but in literature, psychology, and culture. As we continue to explore the human condition, existentialism offers a powerful tool for understanding our place in the world, our freedom to choose, and our search for significance in a seemingly indifferent universe.
Whether in the work of Sartre, Camus, or modern philosophers, existentialist themes remain as relevant as ever, reminding us that in a world without inherent meaning, it is up to us to define our own path.