Existentialism is a philosophical movement that explores human freedom, choice, and meaning. It emerged in response to modern uncertainties and the search for purpose in life. Thinkers like Kierkegaard and Nietzsche laid the groundwork in the 19th century. In the 20th century, Sartre, Camus, and de Beauvoir shaped its core ideas.
Existentialism influenced literature, psychology, and culture. It challenged traditional beliefs and encouraged self-determination. Today, its impact remains strong in philosophy, therapy, and personal growth. This article examines its origins, key thinkers, and continued relevance in the modern world.
The Precursors to Existentialism (19th Century)
Existentialism did not emerge in isolation. Its foundations were laid by 19th-century philosophers who challenged established ideas about faith, reason, and human existence. Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche, though different in approach, shared a concern with individual experience and meaning. Their work questioned traditional religious and philosophical systems, setting the stage for existentialist thought. Key themes like faith, personal choice, and the idea of self-overcoming became central to later existentialist thinkers.
Søren Kierkegaard: The Father of Existentialism
Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) is often called the father of existentialism. A Danish philosopher and theologian, he rejected the rigid structures of organized religion and emphasized personal faith. Kierkegaard believed that true Christianity was not about blindly following doctrine but about an individual’s personal relationship with God. He introduced the idea of the “leap of faith,” arguing that belief in God required a subjective commitment rather than rational proof.
Kierkegaard also explored the anxiety and despair that come with human freedom. In The Concept of Anxiety (1844), he described how individuals face existential dread when realizing their responsibility for their own choices. His idea of the “three stages of life”—the aesthetic, ethical, and religious—outlined different ways people seek meaning. His emphasis on subjective experience and personal responsibility influenced later existentialists like Jean-Paul Sartre and Martin Heidegger.
Friedrich Nietzsche: The Philosophy of Individualism
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) was a German philosopher known for his radical critique of traditional morality and religion. He declared that “God is dead,” not as a literal statement, but as a recognition that religious values were losing their influence in modern society. Nietzsche argued that individuals must create their own values instead of relying on outdated moral systems.
One of his key ideas was the concept of the Übermensch (Overman or Superman), introduced in Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883–1885). The Übermensch represents an individual who transcends societal norms, embraces personal will, and lives creatively. Nietzsche also developed the idea of “eternal recurrence,” the notion that one should live as if they would have to repeat their life endlessly. His rejection of absolute truths and emphasis on self-overcoming had a major impact on existentialism, particularly on Sartre’s ideas of radical freedom and authenticity.
Key Themes: Faith, Choice, and the Overman
The works of Kierkegaard and Nietzsche introduced key existentialist themes that shaped later philosophy. Kierkegaard’s emphasis on faith and personal responsibility contrasted with Nietzsche’s focus on individual power and self-creation. Both, however, placed the individual at the center of philosophical inquiry.
The theme of choice became crucial to existentialism. Kierkegaard saw choice as an act of faith, while Nietzsche viewed it as a path to self-overcoming. Existentialists later expanded these ideas, arguing that people must define their own existence in an uncertain world. The legacy of these 19th-century thinkers laid the foundation for existentialism’s rise in the 20th century.
The Birth of Existentialism (Early 20th Century)
By the early 20th century, existentialism began to take shape as a distinct philosophical movement. While Kierkegaard and Nietzsche laid the foundation, later thinkers expanded on their ideas, focusing more on human existence and the nature of being. Philosophers like Martin Heidegger introduced new perspectives on existence, while others emphasized human freedom and responsibility. Existentialism emerged as a response to the uncertainties of the modern world, including the impact of war, rapid industrialization, and shifting social structures. This period established many of the core ideas that would define existentialist thought in the decades to come.
Existentialism Emerges from Philosophy’s Roots
Existentialism developed as a response to earlier philosophical traditions, particularly rationalism and idealism. Traditional philosophy often sought objective truths and universal principles to explain reality. In contrast, existentialist thinkers argued that philosophy should start with the individual’s lived experience rather than abstract concepts. They focused on subjectivity, personal freedom, and the search for meaning in an indifferent world.
This shift was influenced by phenomenology, a philosophical approach developed by Edmund Husserl in the early 20th century. Phenomenology emphasized the direct experience of consciousness and reality rather than preconceived theories. Heidegger, a student of Husserl, applied these ideas to the study of existence itself. His work, along with the influence of earlier existentialist forerunners, helped solidify existentialism as a major philosophical movement.
Martin Heidegger: The Concept of Being
Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) was a German philosopher who played a crucial role in shaping existentialist thought. His most influential work, Being and Time (1927), explored the fundamental nature of existence. Heidegger introduced the concept of Dasein (German for “being there”), which refers to human beings as conscious, self-aware entities capable of questioning their own existence.
Heidegger argued that individuals often live inauthentically, conforming to societal expectations rather than embracing their true nature. He emphasized the idea of “being-toward-death,” meaning that awareness of mortality should lead individuals to live more authentically. While Heidegger rejected the label of existentialist, his focus on being, authenticity, and anxiety heavily influenced later existentialist thinkers like Jean-Paul Sartre.
Existentialism’s Focus on Human Existence
One of the defining characteristics of existentialism was its emphasis on human existence over abstract metaphysical concepts. Existentialists argued that people are not defined by fixed essences or predetermined purposes but must create their own meaning. This idea directly opposed traditional religious and philosophical beliefs that assumed a given order or purpose to life.
This focus on existence became particularly relevant in the context of the early 20th century. The devastation of World War I and the rise of totalitarian regimes forced people to confront deep existential questions. Philosophers, writers, and artists explored themes of alienation, freedom, and responsibility. Existentialism provided a framework for understanding the uncertainty and absurdity of modern life, a theme that would only grow stronger in the decades to come.
Existentialism Comes to the Forefront (Mid-20th Century)
By the mid-20th century, existentialism had become a widely recognized philosophical and cultural movement. The horrors of World War II, the rise of totalitarian regimes, and the growing disillusionment with traditional values pushed existentialist ideas to the forefront. Philosophers like Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, and Albert Camus explored themes of freedom, responsibility, and the absurdity of life. Their works influenced not only philosophy but also literature, theater, and political thought. Existentialism resonated with a generation grappling with uncertainty, making it one of the most influential intellectual movements of the time.
Jean-Paul Sartre: Existence Precedes Essence
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) is often considered the leading figure of existentialism. His famous phrase, “existence precedes essence,” captures the essence of existentialist thought. Sartre argued that human beings are not born with a predetermined purpose or nature. Instead, they define themselves through their actions and choices. This radical freedom comes with the burden of responsibility—each person must take ownership of their life and its meaning.
In Being and Nothingness (1943), Sartre explored concepts such as bad faith, where individuals deceive themselves to avoid the anxiety of absolute freedom. He also examined how social interactions shape identity, particularly through the concept of “the look,” where individuals become self-conscious when perceived by others. Sartre’s ideas had a profound impact on existentialist ethics, politics, and psychology, emphasizing the importance of authenticity and personal responsibility.
Simone de Beauvoir: Feminism Meets Existentialism
Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986) was a key existentialist thinker who applied existentialist philosophy to gender and feminism. In The Second Sex (1949), she argued that women have historically been defined as “the Other” in a male-dominated society. Instead of being seen as autonomous individuals, women were relegated to roles imposed by cultural and social expectations.
De Beauvoir’s existentialist feminism emphasized that women, like all human beings, must take responsibility for their own freedom. She rejected the idea that biology determines a woman’s fate, famously stating, “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.” Her work laid the foundation for modern feminist thought and expanded existentialism beyond individual freedom to include structural and societal oppression.
Albert Camus: The Absurd and the Meaning of Life
Albert Camus (1913–1960) is often associated with existentialism, though he preferred to describe his philosophy as absurdism. He explored the idea that life is fundamentally meaningless, and humans struggle to find purpose in an indifferent universe. However, instead of falling into despair, Camus argued that individuals must embrace this absurdity and live with defiance and passion.
In The Myth of Sisyphus (1942), Camus used the Greek myth of Sisyphus—condemned to roll a boulder up a hill for eternity—as a metaphor for human existence. He concluded that “one must imagine Sisyphus happy,” suggesting that people can find meaning through rebellion against absurdity. In his novel The Stranger (1942), Camus explored the consequences of rejecting social conventions and facing life’s meaninglessness with honesty. His ideas challenged existentialism’s focus on personal responsibility, introducing a perspective that emphasized acceptance rather than self-definition.
Existentialism in Literature and Culture
Existentialist philosophy did not remain confined to academic discussions; it profoundly influenced literature, theater, and cultural movements. Many existentialist thinkers were also novelists and playwrights who used storytelling to explore themes of freedom, alienation, and the search for meaning. Their works resonated with audiences grappling with the uncertainties of modern life. Post-war European culture, in particular, reflected existentialist concerns, as people sought to understand the horrors of war, the breakdown of traditional values, and the role of the individual in a chaotic world.
Existentialist Literature: Sartre and Camus’ Literary Legacy
Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus were not only philosophers but also accomplished writers whose novels and plays brought existentialist ideas to a broader audience. Sartre’s novel Nausea (1938) introduced themes of alienation and the absurd, following a protagonist who becomes overwhelmed by the meaningless nature of existence. His later work, No Exit (1944), famously declared that “Hell is other people,” highlighting the tension between personal freedom and social relationships.
Camus’ fiction also explored existentialist and absurdist themes. The Stranger (1942) depicted a protagonist, Meursault, who rejects conventional morality and confronts life’s meaninglessness. The Plague (1947) used the story of an epidemic to explore human resilience in the face of an indifferent world. These works helped popularize existentialist themes, making them accessible beyond academic philosophy and influencing modern literature.
The Theater of the Absurd: No Exit and Beyond
Theater became a powerful medium for existentialist thought, particularly through what came to be known as the Theater of the Absurd. Playwrights such as Sartre, Samuel Beckett, and Eugène Ionesco used absurd and fragmented narratives to highlight the lack of inherent meaning in life. Sartre’s No Exit (1944) depicted three characters trapped in a room for eternity, illustrating his idea that individuals define themselves through their interactions with others.
Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot (1953) became one of the most famous absurdist plays, portraying two characters who endlessly wait for a figure named Godot, who never arrives. The play’s repetitive and circular structure reinforced the existentialist idea of an indifferent universe. The Theater of the Absurd resonated with post-war audiences struggling to make sense of human existence in a world marked by war, destruction, and uncertainty.
Existentialism in Post-War European Culture
After World War II, existentialism became a defining intellectual force in Europe, influencing literature, cinema, and political thought. The war had exposed the fragility of human life and the failure of traditional moral and political systems. Existentialism’s emphasis on personal responsibility and freedom spoke to a generation trying to rebuild in the face of uncertainty.
Cultural movements in France, particularly in the cafés of Paris, became hubs of existentialist discussion. Sartre and de Beauvoir, along with other thinkers, gathered at places like Café de Flore to debate ideas and shape public discourse. Existentialist ideas also influenced cinema, particularly the French New Wave, where filmmakers like Jean-Luc Godard and François Truffaut explored themes of alienation, choice, and existential angst. Through literature, theater, and film, existentialism became more than just a philosophy—it became a cultural phenomenon that shaped modern thought.
Existentialism’s Influence Beyond Philosophy (Mid to Late 20th Century)
Existentialism extended its influence far beyond philosophy, shaping fields such as psychology, politics, and postmodern thought. Its focus on individual experience, freedom, and meaning resonated with disciplines that sought to understand human behavior and societal structures. Existentialist ideas were particularly influential in psychology, where they contributed to therapeutic approaches that emphasized personal responsibility. Meanwhile, critics of existentialism raised concerns about its potential links to nihilism and radical individualism. By the late 20th century, existentialism had begun to merge with postmodernism, evolving into new philosophical frameworks that questioned absolute truths and universal narratives.
Existential Psychology: From Frankl to Existential Therapy
Existentialist thought had a significant impact on psychology, particularly through the work of Viktor Frankl and the development of existential therapy. Frankl, a Holocaust survivor and psychiatrist, introduced logotherapy, a form of therapy based on the idea that the search for meaning is the central human motivation. In Man’s Search for Meaning (1946), Frankl argued that even in the face of suffering, individuals can find purpose and take control of their lives. His ideas provided a psychological application of existentialist philosophy, offering a way for people to cope with trauma and uncertainty.
Existential therapy, pioneered by figures like Rollo May and Irvin Yalom, built on these ideas. It emphasized self-awareness, freedom, and responsibility, encouraging individuals to confront existential anxieties such as death, isolation, and meaninglessness. Unlike traditional psychotherapy, which often focused on diagnosing mental illnesses, existential therapy sought to help individuals live authentically and create their own sense of purpose. This approach remains influential in contemporary counseling and psychotherapy.
The Criticism of Existentialism: Nihilism and Individualism
Despite its widespread influence, existentialism faced significant criticism. One of the main concerns was its perceived connection to nihilism—the belief that life has no inherent meaning or value. Some critics argued that existentialist ideas, particularly those of Sartre and Camus, could lead to moral relativism, where individuals reject societal norms and embrace a form of ethical subjectivity.
Additionally, existentialism’s emphasis on radical individualism raised concerns about its social implications. Critics suggested that its focus on personal freedom and responsibility could lead to selfishness or disengagement from collective struggles. Religious philosophers, such as Gabriel Marcel, opposed existentialist atheism, arguing that true meaning could only be found through faith and spiritual commitment. These debates highlighted existentialism’s complex legacy, as both a liberating and potentially isolating philosophy.
Existentialism’s Shift Toward Postmodernism
By the late 20th century, existentialism began to merge with postmodern thought. Postmodernism, which emerged as a critique of absolute truths and grand narratives, shared existentialism’s skepticism of traditional structures. Thinkers like Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida built upon existentialist themes, questioning concepts of identity, power, and meaning. However, postmodernism went further, rejecting the idea of a fixed, authentic self, which existentialists like Sartre and Heidegger had emphasized.
This shift led to new discussions about freedom, social constructs, and the fluidity of meaning. While existentialism focused on individual responsibility, postmodernism emphasized the role of language, culture, and power in shaping human experience. Although existentialism declined as a dominant philosophical movement, its core ideas—freedom, anxiety, and authenticity—continued to influence contemporary philosophy, psychology, and cultural studies.
The Enduring Influence of Existentialism (21st Century)
Existentialism continues to shape contemporary thought, culture, and personal development. Though it is no longer the dominant philosophical movement, its core ideas remain relevant in discussions about identity, freedom, and meaning in modern life. From literature to psychology and even artificial intelligence, existentialist themes appear in various fields, reflecting humanity’s ongoing struggle with uncertainty and self-definition. In an era of rapid technological change, existentialism provides insights into the challenges of authenticity, alienation, and moral responsibility.
Existentialism in Contemporary Thought
In the 21st century, existentialism influences a wide range of academic and intellectual discussions, particularly in philosophy, psychology, and ethics. Many modern existential thinkers focus on how technology, globalization, and societal change affect personal identity and meaning. The rise of artificial intelligence, for example, raises existential questions about what it means to be human and whether consciousness is unique to biological beings. Philosophers such as Hubert Dreyfus have explored Heidegger’s ideas in relation to AI, arguing that human intelligence is fundamentally different from machine processing because of its embodied nature.
Existentialist ideas also intersect with discussions on climate change and social justice. Many activists emphasize the existential responsibility individuals have in addressing global issues, drawing parallels to Sartre’s concept of radical freedom. As people navigate a world of political uncertainty, economic instability, and ethical dilemmas, existentialism continues to provide a framework for understanding personal responsibility and moral choice in an unpredictable world.
The Relevance of Existentialism in Modern Culture
Existentialist themes remain deeply embedded in contemporary culture, particularly in film, literature, and media. Many modern films explore existential questions, such as Christopher Nolan’s Interstellar (2014), which delves into the nature of time, existence, and human purpose. Similarly, science fiction series like Black Mirror frequently examine themes of alienation, free will, and the absurdity of modern technological life. These narratives reflect existential concerns about identity and autonomy in an era dominated by digital interactions.
In literature, authors such as Haruki Murakami and Michel Houellebecq incorporate existentialist themes in their work, often depicting characters struggling with isolation, meaninglessness, and personal freedom. Video games, too, have become a platform for existential exploration, with titles like The Stanley Parable and Nier: Automata challenging players to confront the nature of choice and consequence. The continued presence of existentialist ideas in popular culture demonstrates their lasting impact on how people interpret their lives and the world around them.
How Existentialism Influences Personal Development Today
Beyond academic and cultural discussions, existentialism offers valuable insights for personal growth and self-improvement. Many people apply existentialist principles to their own lives, using ideas like authenticity, responsibility, and meaning-making to navigate personal challenges. Existentialist thinkers emphasize the importance of embracing freedom and making intentional choices, even in the face of uncertainty. This approach resonates with individuals seeking purpose in an increasingly complex world.
In mental health and self-help literature, existentialist themes often appear in discussions about mindfulness, resilience, and personal agency. Concepts from existential therapy, such as Viktor Frankl’s logotherapy, encourage individuals to create their own meaning rather than relying on external validation. This perspective has gained traction in contemporary psychology, where professionals advocate for self-awareness and acceptance of life’s inherent uncertainties. As society continues to evolve, existentialism remains a powerful tool for self-reflection and intentional living.
Closing Thoughts
Existentialism remains a powerful philosophical tradition that has influenced countless areas of thought, from psychology and literature to ethics and cultural criticism. Its core themes—freedom, responsibility, authenticity, and meaning—continue to resonate in a world marked by uncertainty and rapid change. As individuals navigate personal and societal challenges, existentialist ideas provide a framework for understanding human existence and the choices that define our lives.
While existentialism has evolved and merged with other philosophical movements, its emphasis on personal responsibility and self-definition ensures its continued relevance. Whether through literature, therapy, or everyday life, existentialism invites individuals to confront life’s uncertainties with courage and intentionality.