Existentialism is a philosophical movement that focuses on human freedom, choice, and meaning. It argues that individuals define their own lives through actions and decisions. Existentialists reject the idea that life has a predetermined purpose.
The movement began in the 19th and 20th centuries with thinkers like Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Kierkegaard emphasized faith and individuality. Nietzsche challenged traditional morality. Sartre promoted radical freedom and responsibility. Other key figures include Martin Heidegger, Albert Camus, and Simone de Beauvoir. Existentialism continues to influence literature, psychology, and modern thought, shaping discussions on identity, meaning, and human existence.
What is Existentialism?
Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual freedom, personal responsibility, and the search for meaning in a seemingly indifferent universe. It challenges traditional beliefs that human existence has an inherent purpose or follows a predetermined path. Instead, existentialists argue that individuals must create their own meaning through choices and actions. This philosophy emerged as a response to modern anxieties about identity, morality, and purpose, particularly in the wake of industrialization, secularization, and global conflicts. Existentialist thought often explores themes of alienation, absurdity, and the tension between freedom and societal expectations.
The roots of existentialism can be traced to 19th-century philosophers like Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche. Kierkegaard, often considered the father of existentialism, emphasized the importance of personal faith and authentic living. Nietzsche famously declared that “God is dead,” arguing that traditional moral structures no longer held authority in the modern world. In the 20th century, existentialism gained prominence through Jean-Paul Sartre, who developed the concept of “existence precedes essence,” meaning that individuals define themselves through their actions. Other key thinkers, including Martin Heidegger, Albert Camus, and Simone de Beauvoir, expanded on these ideas, influencing literature, psychology, and political thought.
Core Concepts of Existentialism
Existentialism is built on key ideas that shape its perspective on human existence. These concepts highlight the challenges of freedom, meaning, and individual responsibility. They provide a framework for understanding how people navigate life’s uncertainties. Each concept reflects a response to the human condition, addressing themes like anxiety, alienation, and authenticity.
These ideas were developed by existentialist thinkers such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Martin Heidegger, and Simone de Beauvoir. They questioned traditional philosophical and religious views on purpose and morality. Their works continue to influence fields like psychology, literature, and ethics. Below are the core concepts of existentialism.
#1. Freedom and Responsibility
Existentialism asserts that humans are radically free to make their own choices. Jean-Paul Sartre famously stated, “Man is condemned to be free,” meaning that there is no external authority determining one’s fate. Since individuals shape their own lives, they must take full responsibility for their decisions. This freedom can be both liberating and overwhelming, as it removes any predetermined path or moral guideline.
With freedom comes responsibility. Existentialists argue that individuals cannot shift blame to society, religion, or fate. Every choice carries consequences, and avoiding responsibility leads to what Sartre called “bad faith.” The weight of freedom can cause existential anxiety, but it also allows people to create their own values and define their existence.
#2. Absurdity
Existentialists believe that life has no inherent meaning. This leads to the concept of absurdity—the conflict between humans seeking purpose and a universe that offers none. Albert Camus, in The Myth of Sisyphus, used the image of a man endlessly rolling a boulder uphill to illustrate the absurd condition of human existence. He argued that people must confront this reality without falling into despair.
Rather than resigning to nihilism, Camus suggested embracing the absurd. He called this the act of “revolt,” where individuals acknowledge the lack of meaning but continue living with passion and purpose. Existentialists view the absurd as a central challenge of life, one that forces individuals to take ownership of their own meaning.
#3. Authenticity
Authenticity in existentialism means living in accordance with one’s true self rather than conforming to societal pressures. Existentialists stress that people should not blindly follow traditions, ideologies, or expectations. Instead, they should actively define their own values and live sincerely. Martin Heidegger warned against falling into das Man, or “the they,” where individuals lose their uniqueness by adopting mass opinions.
Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir expanded on this idea, arguing that authenticity requires constant self-reflection and courage. It means making choices that align with personal beliefs, even if they go against external norms. Living authentically is challenging but essential for true freedom and self-realization.
#4. Alienation
Alienation is the feeling of being disconnected from oneself, others, or society. Existentialist thinkers argue that modern life often creates this sense of isolation. Karl Marx described economic alienation, while existentialists like Heidegger and Camus explored how individuals feel estranged in a meaningless world. Alienation can result from societal pressures, technological advancement, or the loss of shared beliefs.
Søren Kierkegaard believed that true faith and self-awareness could help overcome alienation. Sartre, on the other hand, saw alienation as a fundamental part of human existence. He argued that people must confront their isolation and take responsibility for shaping their identities, rather than seeking comfort in external systems.
#5. Existence Precedes Essence
One of existentialism’s core principles is that “existence precedes essence.” This means that humans are not born with a predetermined purpose. Instead, they create their essence through actions and choices. Sartre introduced this idea in Being and Nothingness, rejecting the notion that human nature is fixed or designed by a higher power.
This concept stands in contrast to traditional religious and philosophical views, which suggest that people have an inherent essence or role. Existentialists argue that individuals define themselves through their decisions. This freedom is both an opportunity and a burden, as it places the responsibility of meaning-making on each person.
#6. Death
Existentialists view death as a defining aspect of human life. Unlike religious traditions that offer an afterlife, existentialist philosophy treats death as the ultimate end. This realization forces individuals to confront their mortality and decide how to live meaningfully. Heidegger, in Being and Time, described authentic living as acknowledging one’s own death and making choices accordingly.
Camus and Sartre also explored how awareness of death shapes existence. They argued that recognizing life’s impermanence can lead to greater appreciation and urgency in decision-making. Rather than fearing death, existentialists suggest embracing it as a motivator to live authentically and fully.
#7. Angst (Anxiety)
Angst, or existential anxiety, arises from the realization that life has no inherent structure or meaning. Kierkegaard was one of the first to discuss this concept, describing it as the “dizziness of freedom.” He believed that anxiety comes from recognizing the vast possibilities of existence and the responsibility that comes with choice.
Sartre and Heidegger also examined angst as an unavoidable part of human life. It is not simple fear of danger but a deeper unease about existence itself. Rather than suppressing this anxiety, existentialists argue that individuals should embrace it. Angst serves as a reminder of personal freedom and the need to take responsibility for one’s life.
#8. Bad Faith
Bad faith (mauvaise foi) is Sartre’s term for self-deception. It occurs when people deny their freedom and conform to societal roles instead of making authentic choices. An example is a person who claims they “have no choice” but to follow certain expectations, avoiding responsibility for their actions.
Sartre used the analogy of a waiter who acts overly formal, as if trapped in the role of “being a waiter” rather than a free individual. Bad faith is a way to escape the burden of freedom. Existentialists encourage individuals to break free from self-imposed illusions and take ownership of their decisions.
#9. The Other
Existentialism explores how people define themselves in relation to others. Sartre introduced the idea of “the Other” in Being and Nothingness, explaining how humans become self-aware by recognizing how they are perceived. This interaction can create tension, as people feel judged or objectified by others’ perspectives.
One famous example is Sartre’s “Look” theory, where a person feels self-conscious when observed. This awareness can lead to feelings of alienation or a desire to control how one is seen. Simone de Beauvoir expanded on this concept in The Second Sex, examining how women have historically been defined as “the Other” in a male-dominated society.
#10. Subjectivity
Existentialism emphasizes subjectivity, arguing that personal experience and perspective shape reality. There are no absolute truths or objective moral codes imposed on humans. Instead, individuals must create their own values through lived experience. This idea challenges traditional views that rely on external authority, such as religion or science, to dictate meaning.
Kierkegaard famously said, “Truth is subjectivity,” meaning that understanding comes through personal engagement, not abstract theories. Sartre built on this by rejecting universal ethics, instead promoting moral decisions based on personal responsibility. Existentialists believe that true meaning comes from actively engaging with life, rather than following predetermined rules.
Key Figures in Existentialism
Existentialism was shaped by several philosophers who explored themes of freedom, responsibility, meaning, and human existence. These thinkers challenged traditional views on morality, religion, and identity. Some focused on personal faith and individual authenticity, while others emphasized the absurdity of life and the burden of freedom. Their works continue to influence philosophy, literature, psychology, and political thought.
Below are some of the most important figures in existentialism, each contributing unique perspectives to the movement. Their ideas remain relevant in discussions on personal agency, ethics, and the search for meaning in an uncertain world.
#1. Jean-Paul Sartre
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) was one of the most influential existentialist philosophers. He argued that human beings are “condemned to be free,” meaning they have no predetermined essence and must create their own identity through actions. In Being and Nothingness (1943), Sartre introduced the concepts of bad faith and radical freedom, emphasizing that people often deceive themselves to avoid the burden of choice. He believed that avoiding responsibility leads to inauthenticity.
Sartre also applied existentialist ideas to politics and ethics. He supported Marxism and believed in social engagement to fight oppression. In Existentialism Is a Humanism (1946), he defended existentialism against critics, arguing that it promotes individual responsibility and human dignity. Sartre rejected the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1964, seeing it as an attempt to categorize and limit his work.
#2. Søren Kierkegaard
Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) is considered the father of existentialism. He focused on the importance of faith, individuality, and personal choice. In Fear and Trembling (1843), he explored the “leap of faith,” arguing that true belief requires personal commitment, not just intellectual reasoning. He criticized organized religion for turning faith into a routine rather than a deeply personal experience.
Kierkegaard also examined the anxiety of making life-defining choices. In The Concept of Anxiety (1844), he described how humans feel unsettled when confronted with their own freedom. Unlike later existentialists, he believed that faith in God was the solution to this existential struggle. His ideas laid the foundation for later discussions on meaning, responsibility, and authenticity.
#3. Friedrich Nietzsche
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) was a radical philosopher who challenged traditional morality, religion, and truth. He declared that “God is dead,” arguing that modern society no longer relied on religious beliefs for meaning. In Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883–1885), he introduced the concept of the Übermensch (Overman), an individual who creates their own values and rises above societal norms.
Nietzsche criticized conventional morality as a tool for controlling individuals. In Beyond Good and Evil (1886) and On the Genealogy of Morality (1887), he examined how moral values are shaped by power and historical context. His ideas influenced existentialists like Sartre and Camus, though he did not consider himself an existentialist. He emphasized personal strength, creativity, and the need to embrace life’s uncertainties.
#4. Martin Heidegger
Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) focused on the nature of existence and human awareness. His work Being and Time (1927) introduced the concept of Dasein, meaning “being-there,” which describes how humans exist in relation to the world. He argued that people often live inauthentically by following societal expectations rather than embracing their true potential.
Heidegger also explored the significance of death. He believed that awareness of mortality forces individuals to take responsibility for their existence. His philosophy influenced Sartre, though Heidegger distanced himself from existentialism. His involvement with the Nazi Party remains controversial, but his contributions to existential thought are widely recognized.
#5. Albert Camus
Albert Camus (1913–1960) explored existentialism through literature and philosophy. He introduced the concept of the absurd, describing the conflict between humanity’s search for meaning and the meaningless nature of the universe. In The Myth of Sisyphus (1942), he argued that people must confront absurdity and embrace life without seeking false hope. He called this acceptance “revolt.”
Camus’ novels, such as The Stranger (1942) and The Plague (1947), illustrate existentialist themes through characters facing moral dilemmas and societal alienation. Though often associated with existentialism, Camus rejected the label, preferring to be seen as an absurdist. His work continues to influence discussions on meaning, justice, and human resilience.
#6. Simone de Beauvoir
Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986) was a philosopher, writer, and feminist thinker. In The Second Sex (1949), she applied existentialist ideas to gender, arguing that “one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman.” She examined how societal expectations limit women’s freedom and reinforce gender roles.
De Beauvoir was closely connected to Sartre and helped develop existentialist ethics. In The Ethics of Ambiguity (1947), she explored how individuals should navigate freedom and responsibility. She argued that true freedom involves recognizing the freedom of others. Her work continues to influence feminism, existential ethics, and discussions on personal identity.
#7. Karl Jaspers
Karl Jaspers (1883–1969) combined existentialism with psychology and theology. He believed that human existence is shaped by “limit situations,” such as suffering, death, and guilt. In Philosophy (1932), he argued that individuals must confront these experiences to achieve authentic self-awareness.
Unlike atheistic existentialists, Jaspers saw existential questions as leading toward transcendence. He believed that personal freedom involved a search for deeper meaning beyond material existence. His work influenced later existential and theological discussions, particularly in existential psychology and religious philosophy.
#8. Maurice Merleau-Ponty
Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908–1961) focused on perception and the body’s role in human experience. In Phenomenology of Perception (1945), he argued that consciousness is shaped by bodily experience, not just abstract thought. He challenged Cartesian dualism, which separates mind and body, emphasizing that humans interact with the world through lived experience.
Merleau-Ponty’s work influenced existentialism and phenomenology. He engaged with Sartre and Heidegger’s ideas but developed his own approach to freedom and meaning. His studies on perception contributed to psychology, cognitive science, and contemporary philosophy.
#9. Gabriel Marcel
Gabriel Marcel (1889–1973) was a Christian existentialist who emphasized faith, hope, and personal relationships. Unlike atheistic existentialists, he believed that meaning comes through connection with others and faith in God. In The Mystery of Being (1951), he argued that existential questions should be approached with humility and openness rather than despair.
Marcel developed the concept of “availability,” meaning the willingness to engage with others authentically. He saw existentialism as a way to deepen human relationships rather than just emphasizing individual freedom. His ideas continue to influence Christian existential thought and discussions on ethics and spirituality.
#10. Viktor Frankl
Viktor Frankl (1905–1997) was a psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor who developed logotherapy, a form of existential therapy. In Man’s Search for Meaning (1946), he argued that finding purpose is essential for psychological well-being. Based on his experiences in Nazi concentration camps, he observed that those who found meaning in suffering were more resilient.
Frankl believed that meaning is not given but must be discovered through personal responsibility and engagement with life. Unlike nihilistic existentialists, he maintained that meaning can be found even in suffering. His work influenced psychotherapy, resilience studies, and discussions on existential meaning.
Examples of Existentialism in Everyday Life
Existentialist ideas apply to real-life situations, shaping how people approach freedom, choice, and responsibility. This philosophy emphasizes that meaning is not inherent but must be created by individuals through their actions. Existentialist thinkers argue that people must confront life’s uncertainties with authenticity and courage.
Below are key examples of existentialism in everyday life. These situations highlight how existentialist principles help individuals navigate major choices, mortality, and personal growth while dealing with feelings of alienation and meaninglessness.
#1. Making Major Life Decisions
Life presents crucial choices, such as selecting a career, ending a relationship, or relocating. Existentialism stresses that these decisions are personal and require full ownership of their consequences. Unlike deterministic views that attribute choices to fate, existentialism emphasizes free will. Jean-Paul Sartre’s concept of “existence precedes essence” asserts that people define their own identity through conscious actions rather than following a predetermined path.
This level of freedom can be unsettling, leading to existential anxiety, or angst. Søren Kierkegaard described this as “the dizziness of freedom,” where individuals recognize their responsibility in shaping their future. Existentialism encourages people to make authentic choices rather than conforming to external pressures. By embracing responsibility, individuals create meaningful lives based on their own values and aspirations.
#2. Confronting Mortality
Awareness of death is central to existentialist thought. Martin Heidegger argued that acknowledging one’s mortality enables a more authentic existence. Many people avoid thinking about death, but existentialists suggest that recognizing life’s finite nature leads to a deeper appreciation of the present. This awareness encourages people to live purposefully and make intentional choices.
Viktor Frankl, a Holocaust survivor and psychiatrist, emphasized that meaning can be found even in suffering. His concept of logotherapy suggests that confronting mortality inspires individuals to seek purpose. By accepting the inevitability of death, people can focus on relationships, creativity, and personal growth, leading to a more fulfilling life.
#3. Overcoming Feelings of Meaninglessness
Many individuals struggle with a sense of purposelessness, particularly in a world where traditional sources of meaning, such as religion, may not provide the same comfort. Existentialists argue that meaning is not given but must be created. Albert Camus’ concept of the absurd highlights the conflict between humanity’s search for meaning and the universe’s apparent indifference. He proposed that instead of despairing, individuals should embrace life and define their own purpose.
This perspective encourages people to seek fulfillment through personal projects, relationships, and creative endeavors. For example, someone feeling trapped in a monotonous job might find purpose through artistic expression, community service, or intellectual pursuits. By actively shaping their own meaning, individuals can overcome existential despair.
#4. Pursuing Personal Growth
Existentialism promotes self-discovery and continuous growth. Sartre argued that people have the freedom to reinvent themselves at any moment. This means individuals are not defined by past failures or societal expectations; they can always choose to evolve. Simone de Beauvoir applied this idea to gender and identity, advocating for self-definition rather than passive acceptance of societal roles.
Growth often involves discomfort and uncertainty. Whether learning a new skill, challenging personal beliefs, or overcoming fears, existentialism encourages individuals to take risks and embrace change. Progress happens when people take responsibility for their own development and step outside their comfort zones.
#5. Dealing with Alienation
Existentialist thinkers, including Karl Marx, Sartre, and Camus, explored the theme of alienation—feeling disconnected from oneself, society, or the world. In modern life, individuals often experience alienation in unfulfilling jobs or shallow relationships, making them feel like passive participants rather than active creators of their own lives.
Alienation can be addressed by seeking authenticity in work and relationships. This might involve choosing a career that aligns with personal values, fostering genuine connections, or engaging in creative expression. By taking control of their choices and embracing personal responsibility, individuals can combat isolation and build more meaningful lives.
Closing Thoughts
Existentialism offers a framework for understanding human existence, emphasizing personal freedom, responsibility, and the creation of meaning. It challenges individuals to confront life’s uncertainties with authenticity rather than seeking external validation or predetermined purposes. Through key concepts like absurdity, alienation, and angst, existentialist thought provides insight into the struggles people face in everyday life.
By applying existentialist principles, individuals can make more conscious decisions, find meaning in personal growth, and embrace the uncertainties of life. While existentialism does not offer easy answers, it encourages people to take control of their own narratives, live authentically, and shape their destinies through deliberate action.