Existentialism is a philosophical movement that explores human freedom, choice, and responsibility. It emerged in response to modern challenges, questioning traditional beliefs about meaning and existence. Thinkers like Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche laid its foundation in the 19th century.
In the 20th century, Jean-Paul Sartre, Martin Heidegger, and Albert Camus expanded its ideas. Existentialists argue that individuals must define their own purpose in a world without inherent meaning. They emphasize personal responsibility and the struggle against absurdity. This article traces existentialism’s origins, key themes, and its impact on philosophy, literature, and culture.
Historical Origins
The Roots of Existentialism in the 19th Century
Existentialism developed in the 19th century as a response to growing skepticism about religious and philosophical traditions. The Enlightenment had emphasized reason, science, and progress, but these ideas did not address the deep concerns of individual existence, anxiety, and purpose. The Industrial Revolution and political upheavals also reshaped society, leading many to question the nature of human freedom and identity. Thinkers began to challenge the idea that life had a predefined meaning, arguing instead that individuals must define their own existence.
German Idealism and Romanticism influenced early existentialist thought. Philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel discussed human subjectivity, while Romantic writers emphasized emotion and individual experience. However, existentialism set itself apart by rejecting abstract metaphysical systems. Instead, it focused on the lived experience of individuals in an uncertain world. This shift laid the foundation for existentialist thinkers who would later explore themes of freedom, absurdity, and personal responsibility.
The Influence of Søren Kierkegaard
Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855), often called the father of existentialism, was one of the first thinkers to focus on individual experience and the struggle of faith. He criticized the dominant Hegelian philosophy of his time, which viewed history as a rational process leading to absolute truth. Kierkegaard argued that truth was subjective and deeply personal. He believed that individuals must take a “leap of faith” to find meaning, as reason alone could not provide ultimate answers.
In works like Fear and Trembling and Either/Or, Kierkegaard explored the anxiety of making choices in an uncertain world. He introduced the concept of the “knight of faith,” a person who embraces belief despite uncertainty. He also discussed the idea of despair, which arises when individuals fail to live authentically. His focus on personal responsibility, faith, and the inner struggle influenced later existentialist thinkers, both religious and secular.
Friedrich Nietzsche and the Will to Power
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) rejected traditional morality and religious values, arguing that they suppressed human potential. He famously declared that “God is dead,” meaning that society could no longer rely on religious beliefs to provide meaning. Instead, he proposed the idea of the “will to power”—the driving force behind human ambition and creativity. Nietzsche believed that individuals should strive to become the “Übermensch” (Overman), a person who creates their own values and rises above societal norms.
Nietzsche also explored the concept of nihilism, the belief that life has no inherent meaning. He warned that without new values, people might fall into despair or passive conformity. His ideas on self-overcoming, personal strength, and rejecting conventional morality influenced existentialist thinkers like Sartre and Camus. While Nietzsche did not identify as an existentialist, his work shaped the movement’s emphasis on individual responsibility and the search for meaning in an indifferent world.
Existentialism in the 20th Century: Sartre, Heidegger, and Camus
In the 20th century, existentialism became a major philosophical movement, particularly after World War II. The war’s destruction and the horrors of totalitarianism led many to question the nature of human freedom and morality. Thinkers like Jean-Paul Sartre, Martin Heidegger, and Albert Camus built on earlier ideas, applying them to modern existential struggles.
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) developed the concept of “existence precedes essence,” arguing that people define themselves through their actions rather than being born with a fixed nature. In Being and Nothingness, he explored the idea of “bad faith”—when individuals deceive themselves to avoid responsibility. Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) focused on human existence in Being and Time, emphasizing the importance of confronting death and making authentic choices. Albert Camus (1913–1960) introduced the idea of the absurd, particularly in The Myth of Sisyphus, where he argued that life lacks inherent meaning but can still be embraced with defiance. These philosophers cemented existentialism as a response to modern existential crises.
Philosophical Foundations
The Focus on Individual Freedom and Choice
Existentialism emphasizes individual freedom and the responsibility that comes with it. Unlike deterministic philosophies that argue external forces dictate human actions, existentialists believe people have the power to shape their own lives. Jean-Paul Sartre famously stated, “Man is condemned to be free,” meaning that humans are free to make choices but must also bear the consequences. This freedom is not just about external actions but also about internal decisions—how one chooses to think, feel, and interpret the world.
With freedom comes anxiety, as individuals realize they alone are responsible for their choices. This burden can lead to existential dread, a recurring theme in existentialist literature. Thinkers like Søren Kierkegaard and Martin Heidegger explored this anxiety, arguing that it arises when people confront their own potential and the uncertainty of existence. While this can be overwhelming, existentialists believe that embracing one’s freedom and making authentic choices leads to a more meaningful life.
The Search for Meaning in an Absurd World
Existentialism acknowledges that humans seek meaning, yet the universe itself is indifferent and offers no inherent purpose. This conflict creates what Albert Camus called “the absurd”—the tension between human desire for meaning and the universe’s silence. In The Myth of Sisyphus, Camus illustrates this idea through the story of Sisyphus, a man condemned to roll a boulder uphill for eternity. Despite the futility of his task, Camus argues that Sisyphus must embrace his struggle and find meaning within it.
The absurd does not necessarily lead to despair. Instead, existentialists suggest that individuals must create their own meaning through personal choices and experiences. Friedrich Nietzsche’s idea of self-overcoming and Jean-Paul Sartre’s belief in radical freedom both reflect this perspective. Rather than relying on external sources like religion or social conventions, existentialists argue that meaning emerges through active engagement with life, even in the face of uncertainty.
Existence Precedes Essence: The Core Tenet
One of existentialism’s most important principles is that “existence precedes essence.” This idea, developed by Jean-Paul Sartre, means that humans are not born with a predetermined purpose or identity. Instead, individuals define themselves through their actions and choices. Unlike objects, which are created for a specific function (e.g., a knife is made to cut), humans must determine their own essence through experience.
This perspective challenges traditional beliefs that human nature is fixed or given by divine or societal forces. It also places a heavy responsibility on individuals to create their own identity. Living authentically requires embracing this freedom and making conscious choices rather than conforming to societal expectations. Those who avoid this responsibility fall into “bad faith,” deceiving themselves into thinking they have no choice in shaping their own lives.
The Role of Subjectivity in Existentialist Thought
Existentialists emphasize subjectivity, arguing that personal experience and perspective shape reality. Søren Kierkegaard criticized objective systems of thought that claimed to explain existence universally. Instead, he believed that truth is personal and must be experienced individually. His idea of the “leap of faith” reflected this belief—each person must choose their own path without absolute certainty.
Jean-Paul Sartre and Maurice Merleau-Ponty expanded on this idea, discussing how human consciousness is always engaged with the world from a subjective standpoint. Sartre, in Being and Nothingness, described how individuals project meaning onto their experiences rather than discovering meaning that already exists. This focus on subjectivity influenced not only philosophy but also psychology, literature, and art, encouraging a deeper exploration of personal identity and perception.
Key Themes
Alienation and the Absurd
Alienation is a central theme in existentialism, reflecting the individual’s sense of disconnection from society, others, and even themselves. Karl Marx explored alienation in the context of labor, but existentialists expanded the concept beyond economic structures. Søren Kierkegaard described how individuals feel estranged when they fail to live authentically, instead conforming to societal expectations. Martin Heidegger’s concept of “thrownness” (Geworfenheit) suggests that people are placed into a world they did not choose, which creates a fundamental sense of detachment.
Albert Camus introduced the idea of the absurd, the conflict between humanity’s search for meaning and the universe’s apparent indifference. In The Myth of Sisyphus, he argues that humans, like Sisyphus, are condemned to search for meaning in a meaningless world. However, Camus suggests that embracing the absurd—living with full awareness of life’s lack of inherent purpose—can lead to personal freedom. This idea influenced literature, film, and modern existential psychology.
Authenticity and the Fear of Living in Bad Faith
Authenticity in existentialist thought refers to living in accordance with one’s true self rather than conforming to external pressures. Jean-Paul Sartre argued that many people live in “bad faith” (mauvaise foi), deceiving themselves to avoid the burden of responsibility. He used the example of a waiter who plays the role of a waiter too perfectly, reducing himself to his social function rather than embracing his full humanity.
Living authentically requires individuals to accept their freedom and make choices that reflect their true beliefs. Simone de Beauvoir applied this idea to gender roles, arguing in The Second Sex that women must reject societal definitions of femininity and define themselves. Existentialists view authenticity as an ongoing struggle, as societal expectations, fear, and self-doubt often push individuals toward inauthentic living.
The Existential Crisis: Anxiety and the Void
An existential crisis occurs when an individual confronts the apparent meaninglessness of life. This often leads to deep anxiety, as one questions their purpose and the value of their choices. Kierkegaard called this experience “the dizziness of freedom,” recognizing that absolute freedom can be overwhelming. Martin Heidegger described a similar feeling in Being and Time, referring to “angst” as the realization that one is ultimately responsible for shaping their own existence.
This anxiety can lead to despair, but existentialists argue that it can also be a catalyst for personal growth. By confronting the void, individuals have the opportunity to redefine their values and make intentional choices. Many existentialist works, such as Sartre’s Nausea and Camus’s The Stranger, depict protagonists undergoing such crises and ultimately facing the challenge of constructing their own meaning.
Death, Nothingness, and the Human Condition
Death is a central concern in existentialist philosophy because it represents the ultimate boundary of human existence. Heidegger emphasized that awareness of death (Sein-zum-Tode, or “being-toward-death”) forces individuals to confront their own finitude and make meaningful choices. Ignoring death leads to an inauthentic life, while accepting it encourages individuals to take responsibility for their existence.
Jean-Paul Sartre took a different approach, arguing in Being and Nothingness that human consciousness is defined by “nothingness”—the ability to project beyond the present and imagine future possibilities. This nothingness is both liberating and terrifying, as it means humans are not bound by a predetermined essence. Existentialist literature, including Camus’s The Plague and Tolstoy’s The Death of Ivan Ilyich, explores how individuals react to the inevitability of death and whether they find meaning in its face.
Influence of Other Philosophies
Existentialism and Phenomenology
Existentialism and phenomenology are closely linked, with many existentialist thinkers drawing from phenomenological methods. Phenomenology, developed by Edmund Husserl, is the study of conscious experience from a first-person perspective. It seeks to describe how individuals perceive and experience the world before applying external interpretations. Martin Heidegger, a student of Husserl, adapted phenomenology to explore the nature of existence, emphasizing human being-in-the-world (Dasein). His work greatly influenced later existentialist philosophers, including Jean-Paul Sartre and Maurice Merleau-Ponty.
Sartre incorporated phenomenology into existentialism by emphasizing human consciousness as active and self-defining. In Being and Nothingness, he describes how individuals are not just passive recipients of reality but actively construct meaning. Merleau-Ponty extended this view to perception and embodiment, arguing that human experience is shaped by the body’s interaction with the world. The existentialist-phenomenological approach has influenced fields such as psychology, cognitive science, and literary criticism.
The Relationship Between Existentialism and Nihilism
Existentialism and nihilism share concerns about the absence of inherent meaning in life, but they diverge in their responses. Nihilism, often associated with Friedrich Nietzsche, argues that life is meaningless and that traditional values are baseless. In The Will to Power, Nietzsche warns that the collapse of religious and moral structures could lead to a crisis of nihilism, where individuals see no purpose in existence. Existentialists acknowledge this crisis but propose ways to overcome it.
Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus rejected passive nihilism, advocating for the creation of personal meaning. Sartre argued that because existence precedes essence, individuals are free to define themselves, making life meaningful through authentic choices. Camus, in The Myth of Sisyphus, suggested that embracing the absurd allows people to live fully despite life’s lack of objective meaning. While nihilism views meaninglessness as a dead end, existentialism sees it as an opportunity for self-determination.
The Impact of Humanism and Existentialist Ethics
Existentialist thought has a strong humanist dimension, as it emphasizes human freedom, dignity, and responsibility. Sartre, in Existentialism Is a Humanism, argued that existentialism is an optimistic philosophy because it empowers individuals to shape their own destiny. Unlike deterministic worldviews that reduce humans to biological or societal factors, existentialism stresses agency and self-creation. Simone de Beauvoir extended these ideas to ethics, arguing that freedom should not only be claimed but also actively defended for others.
Existentialist ethics differ from traditional moral systems that prescribe absolute rules. Instead, they focus on individual responsibility and authenticity. Sartre believed that when making choices, one must consider the impact on humanity as a whole, a concept he called “universal responsibility.” De Beauvoir’s The Ethics of Ambiguity further explored this idea, arguing that ethical living requires individuals to recognize their freedom while acknowledging their connection to others. This existentialist approach has influenced modern discussions on personal and social responsibility.
Existentialism’s Connection to Existential Theology
Existentialism has had a significant impact on theology, particularly in the works of thinkers like Paul Tillich, Karl Jaspers, and Gabriel Marcel. Unlike traditional religious views that assert objective meaning, existentialist theology explores faith as a personal and often uncertain experience. Søren Kierkegaard, considered the father of existentialism, argued that faith is a subjective leap beyond rational proof. In Fear and Trembling, he examined the story of Abraham, suggesting that true faith requires personal commitment despite uncertainty.
Christian existentialists, such as Tillich and Marcel, sought to reconcile existentialist themes with religious belief. Tillich’s The Courage to Be argues that faith is not about adhering to fixed doctrines but about embracing uncertainty and finding meaning in existence. Marcel, influenced by phenomenology, viewed faith as a lived experience rather than an abstract concept. Existentialist theology continues to influence contemporary religious thought, particularly in discussions about doubt, meaning, and personal responsibility in faith.
Cultural Impact
Existentialism in Literature: From Dostoevsky to Camus
Existentialist themes have been deeply explored in literature, particularly in the works of Fyodor Dostoevsky, Franz Kafka, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Albert Camus. Dostoevsky’s Notes from Underground (1864) is considered an early existentialist novel, portraying a protagonist who rejects rationality and struggles with self-awareness. His later works, such as Crime and Punishment and The Brothers Karamazov, examine themes of free will, morality, and the burden of choice. Similarly, Kafka’s The Metamorphosis and The Trial depict alienation, absurdity, and the struggle for meaning in an impersonal world.
Jean-Paul Sartre’s Nausea and No Exit explicitly engage with existentialist ideas, portraying characters who grapple with freedom, meaning, and self-deception. Albert Camus, though rejecting the label of existentialist, explored existential themes in The Stranger and The Myth of Sisyphus, emphasizing the absurdity of life and the necessity of embracing it without illusions. These literary works not only reflect existentialist thought but also helped popularize it beyond academic philosophy, influencing modern literature, film, and theater.
The Influence on Art and Modernist Movements
Existentialism has significantly influenced modern art, particularly in movements such as abstract expressionism and surrealism. The emphasis on individual experience, freedom, and the absurd found resonance in artists seeking to break from traditional artistic norms. The works of painters like Edvard Munch, whose The Scream (1893) captures existential anxiety, and Francis Bacon, known for his raw depictions of human anguish, reflect existentialist themes of isolation and inner turmoil.
In the 20th century, existentialist ideas permeated modernist and postmodernist art, with figures such as Jackson Pollock and Mark Rothko embracing abstraction to express deep emotional and philosophical concerns. Surrealists like Salvador Dalí and René Magritte also incorporated existentialist ideas, exploring the unconscious mind and the tension between reality and perception. Existentialist thought encouraged artists to question conventional meaning, embrace subjectivity, and depict the struggle for authenticity in a chaotic world.
Existentialism and Psychology: Understanding the Self
Existentialist ideas have had a profound impact on psychology, particularly in the development of existential psychotherapy. Pioneered by Viktor Frankl, Rollo May, and Irvin Yalom, this approach focuses on helping individuals confront fundamental aspects of human existence, such as freedom, meaning, isolation, and death. Frankl’s Man’s Search for Meaning argues that finding personal meaning is crucial for psychological resilience, particularly in the face of suffering.
Rollo May integrated existentialist concepts with psychoanalysis, emphasizing the importance of facing anxiety and embracing personal responsibility. Irvin Yalom further developed existential therapy by identifying four key existential concerns: death, freedom, isolation, and meaninglessness. Unlike traditional psychotherapy, which often seeks to “fix” psychological issues, existential therapy encourages individuals to engage with life’s uncertainties and construct their own sense of purpose. This approach continues to influence modern psychotherapy and self-help literature.
Existential Thought in Pop Culture and Film
Existentialist ideas have permeated popular culture, particularly in film, television, and music. Movies such as The Seventh Seal (1957) by Ingmar Bergman and Blade Runner (1982) explore existential themes of death, free will, and personal identity. The Coen Brothers’ No Country for Old Men (2007) and The Big Lebowski (1998) reflect existential absurdity, while Charlie Kaufman’s Synecdoche, New York (2008) delves into self-awareness and meaning-making.
In television, shows like True Detective, Bojack Horseman, and The Leftovers incorporate existentialist ideas, depicting characters who struggle with identity, purpose, and alienation. Music has also been influenced by existentialism, with artists like Bob Dylan, David Bowie, and Radiohead frequently addressing themes of personal choice, anxiety, and absurdity. These cultural representations demonstrate how existentialist philosophy continues to resonate in contemporary storytelling and artistic expression.
Major Texts
Being and Nothingness by Jean-Paul Sartre
Jean-Paul Sartre’s Being and Nothingness (1943) is one of the most influential existentialist works, outlining his philosophy of radical freedom and self-definition. Drawing from Heidegger’s existential ontology, Sartre argues that existence precedes essence, meaning individuals are not born with a predetermined purpose but must define themselves through actions. He contrasts being-in-itself (inanimate objects with fixed identities) with being-for-itself (human consciousness, which is fluid and self-aware). This distinction highlights the unique ability of humans to shape their own existence.
A key theme in Being and Nothingness is bad faith, where individuals deceive themselves to escape responsibility. Sartre describes how people adopt societal roles and external expectations to avoid the anxiety of absolute freedom. His famous example of a waiter who overplays his role illustrates how individuals can become trapped in predefined identities rather than embracing authentic existence. The book remains a cornerstone of existentialist thought, influencing philosophy, literature, and psychology.
Fear and Trembling by Søren Kierkegaard
Søren Kierkegaard’s Fear and Trembling (1843) is a foundational existentialist text exploring faith, ethics, and the struggle of individual choice. Using the biblical story of Abraham and Isaac, Kierkegaard examines the “leap of faith” required to follow religious conviction despite logical contradictions. He introduces the concept of the knight of faith, an individual who embraces personal belief beyond societal norms, exemplifying existential commitment.
Kierkegaard contrasts this with the tragic hero, who follows ethical principles but does not transcend rational morality. He argues that faith is deeply personal and cannot be justified through reason alone. Fear and Trembling challenges traditional theological and ethical frameworks, emphasizing the importance of subjective experience. It remains a crucial text in existentialist philosophy and theology, shaping later thinkers like Paul Tillich and Karl Jaspers.
The Myth of Sisyphus by Albert Camus
Albert Camus’ The Myth of Sisyphus (1942) explores the concept of the absurd and how individuals should respond to life’s lack of inherent meaning. Camus begins by stating that the fundamental philosophical question is whether life is worth living. He rejects traditional answers that rely on religion or metaphysics, arguing instead that life’s meaninglessness should be accepted rather than escaped. He describes the absurd as the confrontation between human desire for purpose and the silent, indifferent universe.
Camus uses the Greek myth of Sisyphus, condemned to roll a boulder up a hill for eternity, as a metaphor for the human condition. Instead of despairing, Camus suggests that Sisyphus must embrace his fate, finding freedom in recognizing and accepting the absurd. This idea laid the foundation for Camus’ philosophy of “revolt,” where individuals create their own meaning in defiance of nihilism. His existentialist-absurdist perspective continues to influence modern philosophy, literature, and existential psychotherapy.
Other Influential Existentialist Works: From Heidegger to de Beauvoir
Beyond Sartre, Kierkegaard, and Camus, many other existentialist thinkers have produced key philosophical texts. Martin Heidegger’s Being and Time (1927) explores the nature of human existence, introducing the concept of Dasein, or “being-there.” Heidegger argues that individuals must confront their mortality and live authentically rather than conforming to societal expectations. His work deeply influenced existentialist and phenomenological traditions.
Simone de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex (1949) applies existentialist ideas to feminist theory, arguing that women have historically been treated as “the Other” rather than autonomous individuals. She asserts that women must define their own existence rather than being defined by male-dominated social structures. Other notable existentialist works include Karl Jaspers’ Philosophy of Existence, Gabriel Marcel’s The Mystery of Being, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s Phenomenology of Perception. These texts continue to shape existentialist discourse across philosophy, ethics, feminism, and psychology.
Closing Thoughts
Existentialism has profoundly influenced philosophy, literature, psychology, and the arts, shaping modern discussions on individuality, freedom, and meaning. From its roots in the 19th century with Kierkegaard and Nietzsche to its 20th-century development through Sartre, Heidegger, and Camus, existentialism has consistently challenged traditional beliefs and encouraged deep self-exploration. Its emphasis on personal responsibility, authenticity, and the absurdity of life continues to resonate in contemporary society.
Despite its challenges—such as confronting anxiety, alienation, and the burden of choice—existentialism offers a framework for embracing life with awareness and purpose. Whether through philosophical texts, literature, or cultural expressions, its ideas remain relevant, urging individuals to engage with existence on their own terms. By accepting uncertainty and forging personal meaning, existentialism empowers individuals to live authentically in an ever-changing world.